This invention relates to xcex1-galactosidase A and treatment for xcex1-galactosidase A deficiency.
Fabry disease is an X-linked inherited lysosomal storage disease characterized by symptoms such as severe renal impairment, angiokeratomas, and cardiovascular abnormalities, including ventricular enlargement and mitral valve insufficiency. The disease also affects the peripheral nervous system, causing episodes of agonizing, burning pain in the extremities. Fabry disease is caused by a deficiency in the enzyme xcex1-galactosidase A (xcex1-gal A), which results in a blockage of the catabolism of neutral glycosphingolipids, and accumulation of the enzyme""s substrate, ceramide trihexoside, within cells and in the bloodstream.
Due to the X-linked inheritance pattern of the disease, essentially all Fabry disease patients are male. Although a few severely affected female heterozygotes have been observed, female heterozygotes are generally either asymptomatic or have relatively mild symptoms largely limited to a characteristic opacity of the cornea. An atypical variant of Fabry disease, exhibiting low residual xcex1-gal A activity and either very mild symptoms or apparently no other symptoms characteristic of Fabry disease, correlates with left ventricular hypertrophy and cardiac disease (Nakano et al., New Engl. J. Med. 333:288-293, 1995). It has been speculated that reduction in xcex1-gal A may be the cause of such cardiac abnormalities.
The cDNA and gene encoding human xcex1-gal A have been isolated and sequenced (Bishop et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:4859, 1986; Kornreich et al., Nuc. Acids Res. 17:3301, 1988; Oeltjen et al., Mammalian Genome 6:335-338, 1995). Human xcex1-gal A is expressed as a 429-amino acid polypeptide, of which the N-terminal 31 amino acids constitute a signal peptide. The human enzyme has been expressed in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells (Desnick, U.S. Pat. No. 5,356,804; Ioannou et al., J. Cell Biol. 119:1137, 1992); insect cells (Calhoun et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,179,023); and COS cells (Tsuji et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 165:275, 1987). Pilot trials of xcex1-gal A replacement therapies have been reported, using protein derived from human tissues (Mapes et al., Science 169:987, 1970; Brady et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 289:9, 1973; Desnick et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76:5326, 1979), but there is currently no effective treatment for Fabry disease.
It has been found that expressing a DNA encoding human xcex1-gal A in cultured human cells produces a polypeptide that is glycosylated appropriately, so that it is not only enzymatically active and capable of acting on the glycosphingolipid substrate which accumulates in Fabry disease, but is also efficiently internalized by cells via cell surface receptors which target it exactly to where it is needed in this disease: the lysosomal compartment of affected cells, particularly the endothelial cells lining the patient""s blood vessels. This discovery, which is discussed in more detail below, means that an individual suspected of having an xcex1-gal A deficiency such as Fabry disease can be treated either with (1) human cells that have been geniticall modified to overexpress amd secrete human xcex1-gal A, or (2) purified human xcex1-gal A obtained from cultured gentically modified human cells.
Therapy via the first route, i.e., with the modified cells themselves, involves genetic manipulation of human cells (e.g., primary cells, secondary dells, or immortalized cells) in vitro of ex vivo to induce them to express and secrete high levels of human xcex1-gal A, followed by implantion of the cells into the patient, as generally described in Seldon et al., WO 93/09222 (herein incorporated by reference).
When cells are to be gentically modified for the purposes of treatment of Fabry disease by either gene therapy or enzyme replacement therapy, a DNA molecule that contains an xcex1ggL A cDNA or genomic DNA sequence may be contained within an expression construct and introduced into primary or secondary human cells (e.g., fribrblasts, epithelial cells including mammary and intestinal epithelial cells, endothelial cells, formed elements of the blood including lymphocytes and bone marrow cells, glial cells, hepatocytes, keratinocytes, muscle cells, neural cells, or the precursors of these cell types) by standard methods of transfection including, but not limited to, liposome-, polybrene-, or DEAE dextran-mediated transfection, electroporation, calcium phosphate precipitation, microinjection, or velocity driven microprojectiles (xe2x80x9cbiolisticsxe2x80x9d). Alternatively, one could use a system that delivers DNA by viral vector. Viruses known to be useful for gene transfer include adenoviruses, adeno associated virus, herpes virus, mumps virus, poliovirus, retroviruses, Sindbis virus, and vaccinia virus such as canary pox virus. Although primary or secondary cell cultures are preferred for the therapy methods of the invention, one can also use immortalized human cells. Examples of immortalized human cell lines useful in the present methods include, but are not limited to, Bowes Melanoma cells (ATCC Accession No. CRL 9607), Daudi cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 213), HeLa cells and derivatives of HeLa cells (ATCC Accession Nos. CCL 2, CCL 2.1, and CCL 2.2), HL-60 cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 240), HT1080 cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 121), Jurkat cells (ATCC Accession No. TIB 152), KB carcinoma cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 17), K-562 leukemia cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 243), MCF-7 breast cancer cells (ATCC Accession No. BTH 22), MOLT-4 cells (ATCC Accession No. 1582), Namalwa cells (ATCC Accession No. CRL 1432), Raji cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 86), RPMI 8226 cells (ATCC Accession No. CCL 155), U-937 cells (ATCC Accession No. CRL 1593), WI-38VA13 subline 2R4 cells (ATCC Accession No. CLL 75.1), and 2780AD ovarian carcinoma cells (Van der Blick et al., Cancer Res. 48:5927-5932, 1988) as well as heterohybridoma cells produced by fusion of human cells and cells of another species. Secondary human fibroblast strains, such as WI-38 (ATCC Accession No. CCL 75) and MRC-5 (ATCC Accession No. CCL 171), may also be used.
Following the genetic engineering of human cells with a DNA molecule encoding xcex1-gal A (or following another appropriate genetic modification, as described below) to produce a cell which overexpresses and secretes xcex1-gal A, a clonal cell strain consisting essentially of a plurality of genetically identical cultured primary human cells, or, where the cells are immortalized, a clonal cell line consisting essentially of a plurality of genetically identical immortalized human cells, may be generated. Preferably, the cells of the clonal cell strain or clonal cell line are fibroblasts.
The genetically modified cells can then be prepared and introduced into the patient by appropriate methods, e.g. as described in Selden et al., WO 93/09222.
Gene therapy in accordance with the invention possesses a number of advantages over enzyme replacement therapy with enzyme derived from human or animal tissues. For example, the method of the invention does not depend upon the possibly inconsistent availability of sources of appropriate tissues, and so is a commercially viable means of treating xcex1-gal A deficiency. It is relatively risk-free compared to enzyme-replacement therapy with enzyme derived from human tissues, which may be infected with known or unknown viruses and other infective agents. Furthermore, gene therapy in accordance with the invention possesses a number of advantages over enzyme replacement therapy in general. For example, the method of the invention (1) provides the benefits of a long-term treatment strategy that eliminates the need for daily injections; (2) eliminates the extreme fluctuations in serum and tissue concentrations of the therapeutic protein, which typically accompany conventional pharmacologic delivery; and (3) is likely to be less expensive than enzyme replacement therapy because production and purification of the protein for frequent administration are unnecessary.
As described above, individuals with xcex1-gal A deficiencies may also be treated with purified xcex1-gal A (i.e. enzyme replacement therapy). Primary, secondary, or immortalized human cells genetically modified to overexpress human xcex1-gal A will also be useful for in vitro protein production, to produce protein which may be purified for enzyme replacement therapy. Secondary or immortalized human cells may be chosen from among those described above and may be genetically modified by the transfection or transduction methods also described above. After genetic modification, the cells are cultured under conditions permitting overexpression and secretion of xcex1-gal A. The protein is isolated from the cultured cells by collecting the medium in which the cells are grown, and/or lysing the cells to release their contents, and then applying standard protein purification techniques. One such technique involves passing the culture medium, or any sample containing human xcex1-gal A, over a hydrophobic interaction resin such as Butyl Sepharose(copyright) or another resin having a functional moiety that includes a butyl group. Passing the sample over such a resin may constitute the first chromatography step. If further purification is required, the xcex1-gal A-containing material eluted from the hydrophobic interaction resin may be passed over a column containing a second resin, such as an immobilized heparin resin such as Heparin Sepharose(copyright), (heprin attached to a cross-linked agarose) hydroxyapatite, an anion exchange resin such as Q Sepharose (copyright) (a quaternary ammonium strong anion exchanger attached to cross-linked agarose), or a size exclusion resin such as Superdex 200(copyright) (a spherical composite of cross-linked agarose and dextran). Preferably, the purification protocol would include use of each of the above types of resins. Alternatively, one could use one or more of the latter resins before or instead of the hydrophobic interaction resin.
Previous methods for the preparation of xcex1-gal A with relatively high purity were dependent on the use of affinity chromatography, using a combination of lectin affinity chromatography (concanavalin A (Con A) Sepharose) and affinity chromatography based on binding of xcex1-gal A to the substrate analog N-6-aminohexanoyl-xcex1-D-galactosylamine coupled to a Sepharose matrix (Bishop et al., J. Biol. Chem. 256:1307-1316, 1981). The use of proteinaceous lectin affinity resins and substrate analog resins is typically associated with the continuous leaching of the affinity agent from the solid support (cf. Marikar et al., Anal. Biochem. 201:306-310, 1992), resulting in contamination of the purified product with the affinity agent either free in solution or bound to eluted protein. Such contaminants make the product unsuitable for use in pharmaceutical preparations. Bound substrate analogs and lectins can also have substantial negative effects on the enzymatic, functional, and structural properties of proteins. Furthermore, such affinity resins are typically expensive to prepare, making the use of such resins less suitable for production on a commercial scale than more conventional chromatography resins. Thus, the development of a purification protocol using conventional chromatography resins, which are readily available in supplies and quality suitable for large-scale commercial use, is a significant advantage of the present invention.
An individual who is suspected of having an xcex1-gal A deficiency may be treated by administration of pharmaceutically acceptable, purified human xcex1-gal A by any standard method, including but not limited to intravenous, subcutaneous, or intramuscular injection, or as a solid implant. The purified protein may be formulated in a therapeutic composition consisting of an aqueous solution containing a physiologically acceptable excipient, e.g. a carrier such as human serum albumin, at pH 6.5 or below.
The present invention thus provides a means for obtaining large quantities of appropriately glycosylated and therefore therapeutically useful human xcex1-gal A. This makes enzyme replacement therapy for xcex1-gal deficiency commercially viable, as well as relatively risk-free compared to therapy with enzyme derived from human or animal tissues.
Skilled artisans will recognize that the human xcex1-gal A DNA sequence (either cDNA or genomic DNA), or sequences that differ from it due to either silent codon changes or to codon changes that produce conservative amino acid substitutions, can be used to genetically modify cultured human cells so that they will overexpress and secrete the enzyme. It is also possible that certain mutations in the xcex1-gal A DNA sequence will encode polypeptides that retain or exhibit improved xcex1-gal A enzymatic activity (as would be apparent by expressing the mutant DNA molecule in cultured cells, purifying the encoded polypeptide, and measuring the catalytic activity, as described herein). For example, one would expect conservative amino acid substitutions to have little or no effect on the biological activity, particularly if they represent less than 10% of the total number of residues in the protein. Conservative substitutions typically include substitutions within the following groups: glycine, alanine; valine, isoleucine, leucine; aspartic acid, glutamic acid; asparagine, glutamine; serine, threonine; lysine, arginine; and phenylalanine, tyrosine.
Production of xcex1-gal A by the cells can be maximized by certain genetic manipulations. For example, the DNA molecule that encodes xcex1-gal A may also encode an heterologous signal peptide, such as the signal peptide of human growth hormone (hGH), erythropoietin, Factor VIII, Factor IX, glucagon, the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, or a lysosomal enzyme other than xcex1-gal A. Preferably, the signal peptide is the hGH signal peptide (SEQ ID NO:21), and is at the N-terminus of the encoded protein. The DNA sequence encoding the signal peptide may contain an intron such as the first intron of the hGH gene, resulting in a DNA sequence such as SEQ ID NO:27 (see also FIG. 10). Furthermore, the DNA molecule may also contain a 3xe2x80x2 untranslated sequence (UTS) that is at least 6 nucleotides in length (in contrast to the xcex1-gal A mRNA found in humans, which has no 3xe2x80x2 UTS, the requisite polyadenylation site being within the coding sequence). The UTS is positioned immediately 3xe2x80x2 to the termination codon of the coding sequence, and includes a polyadenylation site. It is preferably at least 6 nucleotides in length, more preferably at least 12, and most preferably at least 30, and in all cases it contains the sequence AATAAA or a related sequence which serves to promote polyadenylation. A DNA molecule as described, i.e., encoding an hGH signal peptide linked to xcex1-gal A and containing a 3xe2x80x2 UTS that includes a polyadenylation site, and preferably including expression control sequences, is also within the invention. Also within the scope of the invention is a DNA molecule encoding a protein that includes the signal peptide of hGH linked to xcex1-gal A or any other heterologous polypeptide (i.e., any polypeptide other than hGH or an analog of hGH). The heterologous polypeptide is typically a mammalian protein, e.g. any medically desirable human polypeptide.
Other features-and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the detailed description that follows, and from the claims.
The term xe2x80x9cgenetically modified,xe2x80x9d as used herein in reference to cells, is meant to encompass cells that express a particular gene product following introduction of a DNA molecule encoding the gene product and/or regulatory elements that control expression of a coding sequence. The introduction of the DNA molecule may be accomplished by gene targeting (i.e., introduction of a DNA molecule to a particular genomic site); furthermore homologous recombination allows replacement of the defective gene itself (the defective xcex1-gal A gene or a portion of it could be replaced in a Fabry disease patient""s own cells with the whole gene or a portion thereof)).
The term xe2x80x9cxcex1-gal A,xe2x80x9d as used herein, means xcex1-gal A without a signal peptide, i.e., SEQ ID NO:26 (FIG. 9). There is some indication that residues 371 to 398 or 373 to 398 of SEQ ID NO:26 (FIG. 9) may be removed in the lysosome; however, removal of this putative propeptide is not believed to affect activity of the enzyme. This suggests that any portion of the putative propeptide could be deleted without affecting activity. Thus, the term xe2x80x9cxcex1-gal Axe2x80x9d as used herein also covers a protein having a sequence corresponding to SEQ ID NO:26 except lacking up to 28 residues at the C-terminus of that sequence.
By xe2x80x9cxcex1-gal A deficiencyxe2x80x9d is meant any deficiency in the amount or activity of this enzyme in a patient. The deficiency may induce severe symptoms as typically observed in males who are suffering from Fabry disease, or may be only partial and induce relatively mild symptoms as can be seen in heterozygous female carriers of the defective gene.
As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cprimary cellxe2x80x9d includes cells present in a suspension of cells isolated from a vertebrate tissue source (prior to their being plated, i.e., attached to a tissue culture substrate such as a dish or flask), cells present in an explant derived from tissue, both of the previous types of cells plated for the first time, and cell suspensions derived from these plated cells.
xe2x80x9cSecondary cellsxe2x80x9d refers to cells at all subsequent steps in culturing. That is, the first time a plated primary cell is removed from the culture substrate and replated (passaged), it is referred to as a secondary cell, as are all cells in subsequent passages.
A xe2x80x9ccell strainxe2x80x9d consists of secondary cells which have been passaged one or more times; exhibit a finite number of mean population doublings in culture; exhibit the properties of contact-inhibited, anchorage dependent growth (except for cells propagated in suspension culture); and are not immortalized.
By xe2x80x9cimmortalized cellxe2x80x9d is meant a cell from an established cell line that exhibits an apparently unlimited lifespan in culture.
By xe2x80x9csignal peptidexe2x80x9d is meant a peptide sequence that directs a newly synthesized polypeptide to which it is attached to the endoplasmic reticulum for further post-translational processing and/or distribution.
The term xe2x80x9cheterologous signal peptide,xe2x80x9d as used herein in the context of xcex1-gal A, means a signal peptide that is not the human xcex1-gal A signal peptide (i.e., that encoded by nucleotides 36-128 of SEQ ID NO:18). It typically is the signal peptide of some mammalian protein other than xcex1-gal A.
The term xe2x80x9cfirst chromatography stepxe2x80x9d refers to the first application of a sample to a chromatography column (all steps associated with the preparation of the sample are excluded).